Avoid Cracks When Layering Oils Avoid Cracks When Layering Oils By Ron Sanders Many artists are unfamiliar with the basic and fundamental rule of oil painting: 'Fat over Lean.' Understanding the rule and its application is necessary to avoid cracking. Evaporation= Gas Out v. Oxidation= Oxygen In Drying oils, most commonly linseed oil and walnut oil, dry by oxidation rather than evaporation. When liquids dry by evaporation, the liquid becomes a gas, leaving no trace behind. However, when a liquid dries by oxidation, the fluid combines with oxygen from the atmosphere and undergoes a molecular change, altering its form, but remaining where it was placed.
Diluents, such as gum turpentine from pine trees or mineral spirits from petroleum, evaporate. And if they are pure, there is no trace of them in the paint film.
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Their purpose, therefore, is to thin or dilute the paint, but do little to modify the paint film. What little affect they do have will be discussed later in this article. Drying oils, such as linseed or walnut, dry by oxidation. HOW DOES OXIDATION WORK?
The drying oil combines with oxygen from its surface downward, hardening as the oxygen reaches each layer. But, more importantly, in relation to the problem of cracking, as oil oxidizes it moves - expanding and contracting during the drying process. The danger arises when a dry and inflexible layer is on top of a still drying and moving lower layer. Anyone who has lived in a cold environment knows what happens to cement sidewalks when the ground beneath expands and contracts during the freeze and thaw cycles of summer and winter: it cracks! The exact same process happens in oil paintings that are incorrectly layered.
HOW CAN WE AVOID THIS TROUBLESOME PROBLEM? There are two key components: 1. Make sure that lower layers of paint dry before upper layers; and, 2. Make sure than each successive layer has more flexibility than the previous layer.
'OK, OK,' you say, 'but what can I do to make that happen?' The answer is the same for both and is summed up by the rule and application of 'Fat over Lean.' Drying oils are fatty oils from plants and nuts.
Despite what some authors have written, painting fat over lean does NOT, by definition, mean painting thick over thin. To paint fat over lean means to paint in a way that each successive layer of paint, when layering paint wet over dry, contains more fatty oil than the previous layer, allowing it to dry more slowly and to be more flexible than the previous layers.
When you go to the local butcher and ask for a lean cut of meat, you are not asking the butcher to cut the meat in thin 'deli-slice' fashion. You are asking him to cut off the fat. Likewise, when you buy hamburger that is 90% lean, that means that it contains 10% fat, not that it makes really skinny burgers. Something that is lean contains less fat than something that is fatty. Simple enough.
In practice, a thin layer of paint will dry faster than a thick layer. This means that painting thin first and building toward thicker layers or areas of impasto will produce a similar desired effect.
But if each layer must be thicker than the last, then that does not allow for thin layers of glazes and scumbles in top layers. How, then, do we increase the amount of fat in our paint layers? By the addition of a medium! The purpose of a painting medium is to alter the paint's handling characteristics while also modifying the paint film's properties. The purpose of a diluent is to dilute the paint film, affecting its handling, without modifying the properties of the paint film.
However, as mentioned above, a diluent does have some effect. What effect does a diluent have on the paint? A diluent will thin the paint film, spreading the pigment particles and oils farther apart on the surface of the ground, weakening the bond and speeding the dry time. As discussed above, a diluent evaporates and is no longer a part of the paint film when dry. It therefore has no ability to create a continuous paint film or bond between particles. The danger in this process is the overuse of a diluent to thin paint for application. Too much turpentine or mineral spirits will weaken the paint film, reducing its ability to bond to the ground, causing the paint particles to fall off in a powder; however, used sparingly in an underpainting that will be overpainted with more heavy bodied paint, thinning with a diluent is acceptable and creates a generally leaner layer of paint to begin.
One can, therefore, begin a painting by sketching out the scene with a thin wash of color - simple paint and turps (or mineral spirits) mix. Then, when that layer is dry, overpaint with tube oil paints alone, with no addition of the diluent. This general approach is also practiced by many plein air and alla prima painters who paint wet in wet and complete a work in one session.
Wash in thin colors: Mass Background and Foreground The trick for most artists is in building up layers beyond this point. And this is where the addition of a medium comes into play. For the sake of this discussion, we will allow for the addition of four additional layers of paint, each having a greater percentage of drying oil by volume. A common medium, used by many artists working in many styles for centuries, includes a drying oil, a resin varnish and a diluent.
The most common mix used today includes Stand Oil, Damar Varnish, and Gum Turpentine. The use of real gum turpentine is important here because petroleum based odorless mineral spirits do not mix with damar varnish properly; they create a white cloudy substance that will produce a veil across your painting. You must use real turpentine from pine trees when mixing this medium. Why, you may ask, do I use the damar varnish at all? What do these ingredients do? Stand oil is generated by heating linseed oil near 300 °C for a few days in the complete absence of air.
This causes a thickening of the oil that makes it very viscous and somewhat difficult to spread on its own. But, this oil is best suited for use in mediums and is essential to the fat over lean process. The addition of damar varnish increases the flow of the medium, reducing its viscosity, while also adding sheen. The turpentine is used to alter the percentage of oil within the medium through dilution.
Therefore, by adjusting the amount of turpentine in each medium we create, we can produce mediums for each layer we paint, each with it's own level of fattiness. MEDIUM MIXTURES The ratio of stand oil to damar varnish remains the same in each of our mediums - 1:1. However, the amount of turpentine will be at a ratio of 7 parts in our first mix, then 5, then 3 and finally 1.
The first medium that we use will be the 1:1:7 mix, with the most turpentine and, as a percentage of the total mix, the least amount of linseed oil. This is the most 'lean' mixture. Once that layer is dry, if we wish to continue painting, we would use the medium marked 1:1:5. Always make sure you mark the outside of your jars so that you can easily identify the correct mixture. Baby food jars work exceptionally well for this and the ingredients can be measured with a simple spoon. For our next layer we will use a 1:1:3 mixture which continues to increase the amount of oil by reducing the diluent. And lastly, we will use the 1:1:1 mix, but only if we had the need for this many layers.
If we begin with a thinned wash of tube color, followed by a layer of pure pigment before we even begin the use of a medium, then we can produce a painting of six layers with these four mediums. SO HOW DO WE ADD THE MEDIUM TO OUR PAINT? I know what you're thinking: 'We get those little metal cups that attach to our palette and we pour some out and then dip into it as we mix our paint.' Because, if you use the medium as a thinner, constantly dipping into it haphazardly, you will end up with varying amounts of medium in your paint film that will destroy the calculated percentage of oil within each layer.
For example: if I dish out four times as much medium in my first layer as in my second, I will actually end up with three times as much fatty oil in my first layer than in the second layer. This will result in your painting being lean over fat, the opposite of what you desire. Always remember: A diluent is made to thin the paint, a medium is made to modify the paint film.
Therefore, there are two controlled ways to introduce the medium into the paint layer. Option 1: Before you begin to paint, take a clean brush and spread a thin layer of the medium onto the area of the painting that you will be working on.
Then paint straight tube oils directly into this wet layer of medium. The paint will mix with the oil and create a single paint film. This method has multiple benefits. First, it re-wets the previously painted areas, renewing the color and sheen of dry paint. Second, it produces a wet surface that allows for better control of edges. (This is also good for laying in glazes).
And third, it produces the desired effect of fattening up the new paint layer. But be careful not to wet too large an area or it will begin to oxidize, creating a sticky surface that is difficult to paint into. Also, don't paint on the medium too thickly or you will find it difficult to control the paint. Option 2: After laying out your palette for the day's painting, take your palette knife and drop one or two drops of medium into each pile of paint. I usually have paint piles about the size of my thumbnail.
If you paint larger works and tend to put more paint out on your palette, then you may need to use more medium. However, overuse of the medium will create a pigment that is too fluid for most desired painting methods. After you have dropped the medium onto your piles of paint, stir the medium into the paint thoroughly with your knife, cleaning the knife between colors. After that, cap up your medium and don't add any more unless you put more oil paint onto your palette.
This method also controls the total amount of medium in all colors and assures that the medium in thoroughly mixed throughout the paint film. This is the method I most commonly use and, to date, have never had a painting crack. OTHER QUESTIONS: Q: What if I want to paint very wet, fluid paintings? Can I add more medium or should I use a mineral spirits?
A: Larger amounts of medium can be added to create fluid (yet continuous) paint films. But the same laws apply. Therefore, if you like to paint with more medium, you must still attempt to control the amount of medium in each layer, adding increasing amounts of fatty oil to each successive layer. But beware, addition of too much oil to the paint film can lead to wrinkling and sagging.
Q: Do I have to use Turpentine throughout the painting process? I hate the smell and am concerned about the odors in my studio. A: It has been my experience that I am still able to use odorless mineral spirits such as Turpenoid or Gamsol to rinse my brushes and even to thin the paint further, without any noticeable clouding of the paint film. In this way, the small amount of gum turpentine in the medium and smaller amount placed into the paint during a day's work creates little if any noticeable odors beyond the normal oil paint smells. I would, however, recommend that you mix your mediums outdoors or in a well ventilated area, as the smell of gum turpentine being poured out during this process can be quite strong.
Q: What if I am allergic to Turpentine? Are there any other medium mixes that I can use that do not contain turpentine? A: For those who are allergic to or suffer from breathing problems that cause them to stay away from gum turpentine, you may wish to create a medium with only linseed oil and mineral spirits or perhaps an alkyd resin such as Liquin, thinned to varying degrees with an odorless mineral spirit. Q: I notice that many paint manufacturers use other oils than the ones you mention, such as poppyseed or safflower oil. Are these OK to use in the fat over lean method? These oils are non-drying cooking oils. Paint manufacturers add artificial dryers to force them to dry.
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The reason that they are used is because linseed oil has been reported to yellow with age, whereas these lighter oils help maintain the purity of the color. Safflower and poppyseed oils are fine to use in true alla prima painting, when all the paint will be put down wet-in-wet, drying as a single paint film. But for wet-over-dry painting, these oils are missing vital ingredients.
The very reason that linseed oil yellows (slightly) is the reason that it is best for layering: the linolenic and linoleic acids in linseed oil make it the most flexible oil and much less prone to cracking than poppyseed, sunflower, or safflower oils. The other naturally drying oil with good flexibility is walnut oil, which is less prone to yellowing and is suitable for whites and blues. Makes a whole line of walnut oil paints and mediums. For those wishing to use predominantly linseed oil paints, Grumbacher Pre-Test, Old Holland Oils, Gamblin, and a few others can be purchased. Q: I am a Plein Air landscape painter. Sometimes, after I get a work back to the studio, I see areas that I want to repaint or touch up.
How should I handle this? A: If it is the same day and the painting is still wet, you can continue painting into it with no ill effect.
But if the painting has dried, you will need to add a fatty medium to the paint for any overpainting. I am convinced that this is one of the biggest causes of cracking that I see in galleries today - from Plein Air painters who rework their field studies in the studio without following the fat-over-lean principle, combined with the fact that they are often using oil paints containing the lighter non-drying oils mentioned above. You can often tell where the repainting has occurred by the location of the cracks. If a painting is not structured properly, the cracking will usually occur within 6 months to a year of its creation.
Q: Do I need to work on any specific ground or support to paint in a layered technique? I have studied with some teachers who promote the use of true gesso (marble dust, calcium and animal hide glue) on a wood panel. Is this necessary? The indirect method of painting has been produced on many types of supports. It is the flexibility of the linseed oil that makes it suitable for painting on a flexible support such as cotton or linen canvas. It is the use of the gesso described above, which is not flexible and is prone to cracking, that demands the use of a solid ground.
But the common use of oil grounds or acrylic 'gesso' grounds on flexible supports is perfectly suitable to the indirect method of painting. Q: I have heard that damar varnish yellows and cracks with age. Is that true, and if so, shouldn't we avoid it in our medium? A: Damar used as a solid top coat varnish will, with excessive age, darken and crack.
However, the very small amount used in these mediums and the infinitesimal amount that is then present in our paint film when we apply these mediums in the prescribed manner makes these issues irrelevant. The general rule is that damar can be added to a paint film so long as it is no more than 50% of the liquid in the binder or medium. In our medium, we are mixing a 50/50 mix of stand oil and damar, but we are then diluting it with turpentine. In addition, we are only adding a couple of drops to a pre-mixed paint that already contains fatty oils and other ingredients, making the percentage of damar in the total paint film much smaller. Q: If I paint alla prima, do I need to use a medium at all? Can I use a medium if I want to? A: In alla prima painting (wet-in-wet in one sitting) - the paint, even when applied in layers, fuses together to dry as a single film.
Therefore, there is no need to use any medium. A common approach is to start with a sketch of the scene, often in a neutral color like burnt umber or an oxide red, to work out the composition. Then the value and general color patterning can be laid in with diluted paint thinly applied over the canvas. In addition, heavier paint can be applied to build the volume of the final painting with details, highlights, and deepest shadows adjusted at the end. The only reason to use a medium is if the artist is not happy with the flow and overall working properties of the paint from the tube and desires to modify the paint's handling. Manufacturers often work toward a consistency in their paint that is easy to work with, making modification rarely necessary for this approach.
Common or street names: coke, C, blow, snow, flake; the base form of cocaine is called freebase or crack What is Cocaine? Cocaine (C 17H 21NO 4) is a powerfully addictive, psychoactive, stimulant drug. On the street it is usually sold as a fine, white powder. The powdered, hydrochloride salt form of cocaine can be snorted or dissolved in water and injected.
Freebase, or crack is cocaine hydrochloride that is processed with ammonia or sodium bicarbonate (baking soda solution) and heated to remove the hydrochloride salt. This ‘freebase’ form of cocaine is not water-soluble; it comes in a rock crystal that can be heated and its vapors smoked. Crack may be processed with a high percentage of impurities. The term 'crack' refers to the crackling sound heard when it is heated prior to smoking. Cocaine use in the U.S.
Is illegal when used as recreational drug. Cocaine is classified as a Schedule II drug, meaning it has a high potential for abuse but can be administered by a physician for legitimate medical uses. By prescription, it is available in the U.S. As a solution for local mucosal anesthesia, but is infrequently used due to safer alternatives, such as lidocaine or benzocaine. 1 Cocaine originates from coca leaves, and has been used for centuries in a variety of cultural applications. Pure cocaine is extracted from the Erythroxylon coca bush, found primarily in the South American countries of Peru, Bolivia, and Columbia.
Coca-leaf infusions or teas have been used to combat altitude sickness and boost energy in many native tribes of South America. 1 Methods of Cocaine Abuse Cocaine is most commonly abused by snorting, smoking or injecting the drug. It can also be rubbed onto mucous membranes. Cocaine hydrochloride (HCL) is water soluble due to the HCL salt and can be injected; it is also snorted in powder form. Cocaine hydrochloride, when purchased on the street, is usually ‘cut’ with adulterants such as baking soda, talcum powder, lactose sugar, or other local anesthetics such as lidocaine or benzocaine.
This increases the weight of the cocaine and allows the seller to make more profit on the street. Other more dangerous adulterants, such as methamphentamine, may also be used to cut cocaine. When cocaine is snorted, the drug is usually laid out on a mirror, plate or other flat surface, separated into ‘lines’ and snorted nasally through a straw, rolled-up dollar bill or other inhaling device. The cocaine is absorbed into the bloodstream through the nasal tissues.
The effect, or ‘high’ with snorting may last 15 to 30 minutes, but does not occur as quickly as smoking or injecting it. Alternatively, smoking crack or injecting cocaine may have a rapid and more intense effect, but the ‘high’ only lasts 5 to 10 minutes. Cocaine is often repeatedly used in short periods of time to sustain the high, an action called ‘binging’. 1,2 Effects of Cocaine Use Cocaine’s effect is described as euphoric with increased energy, reduced fatigue, and heightened mental altertness. Users may be talkative, extraverted, and have a loss of appetite or need for sleep. Cocaine’s psychoactive, pleasurable effects are short-lived without continued administration. 1 Cocaine’s effect occurs in the midbrain region called the ventral tegmental area (VTA).
Neuronal fibers from the VTA connect to the nucleus accumbens, an area of the brain responsible for rewards. Animals studies show that levels of a brain chemical (neurotransmitter) known as dopamine are increased in this area during rewards. Normally, dopamine is released and recycled in response to these rewards.
The use of cocaine can interfere with this process, allowing dopamine to accumulate and send an amplified ‘reward’ signal to the brain, resulting in the euphoria described by users. 1 Some users of cocaine report feelings of restlessness, irritability, and anxiety. A tolerance to the high may develop - many addicts report that they seek but fail to achieve as much pleasure as they did from their first exposure. Some users will increase their doses to intensify and prolong the euphoric effects. While tolerance to the high can occur, users can also become more sensitive to cocaine's anesthetic and convulsant effects without increasing the dose taken.
This increased sensitivity may explain some deaths occurring after apparently low doses of cocaine. Use of cocaine in a binge, during which the drug is taken repeatedly and at increasingly high doses, may lead to a state of increasing irritability, restlessness, and paranoia. This can result in a period of paranoid psychosis, in which the user loses touch with reality and experiences auditory hallucinations. 1,2 Metabolism of Cocaine Cocaine is metabolized primarily in the liver, with less than one percent of the parent drug being excreted in the urine. The primary metabolite is benzoylecgonine and is detectable in the urine for up to eight days after cocaine consumption.
Health Hazards Due to Cocaine Use The immediate physical effects of cocaine use include constricted blood vessels, dilated pupils, and increased temperature, heart rate, and blood pressure. Health complications associated with cocaine use include disturbances in heart rhythm and heart attacks, chest pain and respiratory failure, strokes, seizures and headaches, and gastrointestinal complications such as abdominal pain and nausea. 1,2 The various means of using cocaine can produce different adverse reactions. Snorting cocaine can lead to loss of the sense of smell, nosebleeds, problems with swallowing, hoarseness, and a chronically runny nose. Ingesting cocaine can cause severe bowel gangrene due to reduced blood flow. People who inject cocaine can experience severe allergic reactions and, as with all injecting drug users, are at increased risk for contracting HIV, viral hepatitis and other blood-borne diseases. Cocaine abuse can lead to acute cardiovascular or cerebrovascular emergencies, such as a heart attack or stroke, which may result in sudden death.
Cocaine-related deaths are often a result of cardiac arrest or seizure followed by respiratory arrest. 1,2 A particularly concerning, yet often unknown interaction between alcohol and cocaine has been reported. The National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) has found that the human liver combines cocaine and alcohol and manufactures a third substance, cocaethylene, that intensifies cocaine's euphoric effects but may increase the risk of sudden death. According to the NIDA, this drug-drug interaction, between cocaine and alcohol, is the most common two-drug combination that results in drug-related deaths. 1,2 Cocaine is a strongly addictive drug.
Long-term effects of cocaine use can lead to tolerance, meaning high doses and/or more frequent use is needed to attain the same level of pleasure during the initial period of use. Because cocaine has a tendency to decrease appetite, many chronic users can become malnourished.
If cocaine is used in a binge fashion, with frequent, repeated use over a short period of time, panic and paranoia may set in, with psychosis and auditory hallucinations possible. 1 Extent of Cocaine/Crack Abuse The National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH) estimates that in 2010 there were 1.5 million cocaine users aged 12 or older, roughly 0.6 percent of the U.S.
These estimates were similar to the number and rate in 2009 (1.6 million or 0.7 percent), but were lower than the estimates in 2006 (2.4 million or 1.0 percent). 3 The annual number of cocaine initiates (first time using cocaine) declined from 1.0 million in 2002 to 637,000 in 2010. The number of initiates of crack declined during this period from 337,000 to 83,000. For adults 26 years of age or older, 0.5 percent were estimated as being current users of cocaine in the past year. The average age at first use was for cocaine was 21.2 years old.
3 Use of any illicit drug, but especially drugs such as cocaine, are of great concern with youth. According to the 2010 Monitoring the Future Survey, a national drug use survey of 8th-, 10th- and 12th-graders in the U.S., the use of cocaine continues to decline compared to previous years.
In 2010, 12th-grade use was at 2.9 percent, a decline from 3.4 percent in 2009. Crack use held steady in 2010 compared to 2009, with 1.4 and 1.3 percent, respectively, of high school seniors reporting past year use of crack.4 According to the NSDUH, 2 out of every 1000 (0.2 percent) youth age 12 to 17 were current users of cocaine. For young adults aged 18 to 25, the current use of cocaine was estimated at 1.5 percent, or 1.5 out of every 100 young adults. 3 Cocaine Use in Pregnancy The full extent of cocaine effects on the unborn or newborn child are not fully known. Studies have shown that infants born to women who use cocaine during pregnancy may be delivered prematurely, have low birth rates, and may be shorter in length. Women who abuse cocaine may have other addictive habits, such as nicotine and alcohol use. The amount of prenatal care, exposure to sexually transmitted diseases, and socioeconomic factors may also affect infant outcomes.
Research is finding that exposure to cocaine in utero may also lead to deficits in cognitive abilities, information processing, and ability to complete tasks in childhood. 1 Treatment Options for Cocaine Abusers and Addiction The extensive abuse of cocaine has lead to efforts to develop treatment programs for this type of drug abuse. The majority of abusers seeking treatment programs are smoke crack, and are likely to be polydrug abusers. Strategies are needed to address the neurobiologial, social and medical aspects of cocaine addiction.
Behavioral and pharmacologic strategies are required. As of December 2011, there were no FDA-approved medications to treat cocaine addiction. One of the National Institute on Drug Abuse's top research priorities is to find a medication to block or greatly reduce the effects of cocaine, to be used as one part of a comprehensive treatment program.
The National Institute on Drug Abuse funded researchers are also looking at medications that help alleviate the severe craving that people in treatment for cocaine addiction often experience. Several medications are currently being investigated for their safety and efficacy in treating cocaine addiction., and show promise in controlled clinical trials. Additionally, in 2011, treatments that target dopamine D3 receptors were being researched for safety in humans. In addition to treatment medications, behavioral interventions - particularly cognitive behavioral therapy - can be effective in decreasing drug use by patients in treatment for cocaine abuse. Providing the optimal combination of treatment and services for each individual is critical to successful outcomes.
1,2 Related:. Sources.
National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA). Research Report Series. Cocaine: Abuse and Additiction. National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA). Department of Health and Human Services.
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Office of Applied Studies. Results from the 2010 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Summary of National Findings. Monitoring the Future. National Results on Adolescent Drug Use. Overview of Key Findings 2010.
Oats are the most popular and safest grain to feed to horses. What makes oats a safe feed is the fiber content-about 13 percent. This means oats have more bulk per nutrient content, and horses have to eat more to satisfy their nutrient requirements. Bulk makes it more difficult for the horse to overeat and get colic. Kernels should be plump, heavy, and clean and have a bright color, clean smell, and a low ratio of husks to kernels. The heavier the oats, the more nutrient contained per unit of weight.
1 oats weigh 36 lb (16.3 kg) per bushel, whereas U.S. 4 oats weigh about 27 lb (12.2 kg) per bushel. Oats should be bought according to the least cost per unit of energy, provided they are clean and stored properly.
Clean oats are important. Oats should be cleaned to remove dirt, weeds, other seeds, and broken kernels. Dust in oats indicates that the oats are old and may be of lesser quality. You can check to see if your oats are dusty by pouring them into a can and back into the sack. A musty smell indicates that the oats have been stored with too much moisture and will spoil. Oats should not have a sour or bitter taste.
Barley is very similar to oats as a feed except for some characteristics that affect how it is used. Barley is lower in fiber than oats and is classified as a 'heavy' feed. Barley is more energy dense and weighs more per unit of volume (48 pounds per bushel, or 22 kg) than oats. The barley kernel is harder than the oat kernel, so it is usually rolled before feeding. If the barley kernel is crushed or ground, it is too heavy and can cause colic unless mixed with a bulkier feed such as wheat bran. Multi ate a doll silvergames. Corn is one of the most energy-dense feeds and contains a high content of carbohydrate.
Corn has a high energy content per unit of weight and a high weight per unit volume. Therefore, a given volume of corn contains approximately three times the amount of energy as an equal volume of oats. Corn's high energy content has led to it becoming known as 'too hot' a feed for horses. However, if the horse is fed to meet its energy requirement, corn is an excellent feed. Corn quality is judged by the moisture content and percentage of well-formed kernels. Very few damaged kernels should be present. In addition, kernels should be plump, firm, and separated.
There should be no insect or mold damage. Moisture content should be less than 14 percent. The kernel is high in starch and readily fermentable; therefore, it can become toxic.
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Corn can be fed in the following forms. Shelled whole corn - Some whole-corn kernels will pass through the digestive tract without being digested. Therefore, it is advisable to process the kernels in some way to increase digestion.
Cracked corn - Cracking the corn kernel may be preferred because it allows digestive juices to enter the corn and increase digestibility. Steamed rolled corn - Steam rolling further processes the corn kernel, creating more surface area for digestive juices and increasing digestibility. Ground or crushed corn - This type of processing makes the corn kernel too small. If the corn passes through the small intestines too rapidly, it can lead to fermentation in the hind gut. This may lead to colic if the horse is being feed a high-concentrate diet. Whole-ear ground corn can be fed to horses because the cob is high in fiber and low in energy.
Most wheat is used for human consumption, with little fed to horses. Wheat is fed to horses more in the Southwest and Northwest than other parts of the country. By-products of the milling process, such as wheat bran, are most commonly fed to horses. Wheat bran is the hard outer coating of the kernel.
One popular way of feeding wheat bran is in the form of a mash. It is highly palatable and is frequently used to add bulk to a diet.
It is also fed to increase phosphorus content. Wheat bran is 12 percent digestible protein. Wheat middlings are fine particles of the wheat kernel obtained during the milling process. If wheat middlings are fed to horses, they must be mixed with a bulky feed.
Soybeans Whole, roasted soybeans and soybean meal are both used as a protein supplement to increase the protein content of a concentrate mix. Whole, roasted soybeans are not as commonly fed to horses as soybean meal. The two common types of soybean meal are differentiated based on their protein content (44 percent or 48 percent). The 48 percent protein soybean meal is prepared by removing the hulls, which makes a product relatively richer in protein content. The hulls contain mostly fiber and very little protein. Other types of protein supplements can be used in horse rations, but soybean meal is by far the most popular. Additional Resources.
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